Hello Everyone,

Thank you for all your inquiries about extending the due date for the last assignment regarding the Ambiguity of Language and for all of you who submitted the assignment on CANVAS.  I am glad that I could accommodate your requests and give you a little bit more time to complete the assignment.

This week we are focusing on Assumptions, which is discussed at length in Chapter 5 of Asking the Right Questions, in the Chapter entitled What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions?

According to Merriman-Webster the definition of the word assumption is 1. an assuming that something is true, 2. a fact or statement taken for granted.

When anyone is trying to convince a reader of a particular position a person better offer reasons and conclusions that are logical and substantial.  This is especially important when a argument makes sense on the surface; however, it is really important that you as a reader understand that there are unstated or hidden beliefs that the writer may bring to their argument that may not be logical or may swing the argument away from making sense.

I want you to read Chapter 5 of Asking The Right Questions entitled What are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions?

Carefully read the example on page 53 regarding laws against public intoxication.  One of the things you will think off the bat is that the argument is logical, followed by understandable conclusion.  Of course, if the city expects a change in behavior of its citizens, it logically follows that the citys law enforcement should have to enforce the change.

But it is also possible that the reason can be true, and yet not support the conclusion.  What if your ideals that it is the individuals personal responsibility to monitor behavior rather than the governments role.  So, from your perspective the reason no longer supports the conclusion. If you have certain beliefs, in all arguments there will be some beliefs that are taken for granted by the writer and also, in turn, the reader. In most cases, these statements will not be stated.  You have to figure out the intended meaning of the words, deciding the whether the assumptions of the writer are valid.

When you are attempting to understand someones argument, you almost need to figure out the authors hidden assumptions. It is much like trying to figure out a riddle or a magic trick. You have to go to the source. In arguments you have to discover the hidden maneuvers, which are unstated ideas or beliefs. These unstated ideas are assumptions. These assumptions help you fully understand a writers argument.

What are the assumptions? They are hidden or unstated. They are taken for granted by the writer.  They are particularly influential in determining the conclusion, and finally, they are potentially deceptive or manipulative.

See the diagram on page 54 of your textbook.

What are the assumptions?

You should be able to find the issue, conclusion, and reasons explicitly in a communicators message. However, the visible, stated reasons are not the only ideas that a communicator includes in her reasoning. The communicator may also be including some hidden, unstated beliefs in her argument assumptions.

The definition of an assumption, according to Browne and Keeley, is the following:

An assumption is a belief, usually unstated, that is taken for granted and supports the explicit reasoning.

To avoid being blindly led into accepting an authors conclusion, you must identify and analyze the assumptions embedded within the argument. If you miss these hidden assumptions, you may find yourself accepting a conclusion that you would have rejected had you explicitly reflected on the assumptions. Keep in mind that communicators will want to position their argument in the most persuasive way, and sometimes may intentionally hide assumptions that are likely to spark disagreement.

Where should you look for assumptions?

Linkage assumptions are found in the movement from reasons to the conclusion. These linkage assumptions are needed in order for the reasons to support the conclusion.
Look for assumptions necessary for a reason to be true.
There are two different types of assumptions: value assumptions and descriptive assumptions.

How do you identify Assumptions?

There are two places to look for assumptions:  First look for assumptions needed for the reason(s) to support the conclusions and look for ones necessary for a reason to be true.

Value Assumptions: a taken for granted belief about the relative desirability of competing values.  When authors take on a social controversy, they understandably prefer one value over another and have priorities and preferences; these preferences are their values assumptions.

Typical Value Conflicts:

Loyalty vs. Honesty.                                          Should you tell your parents your
                                                                                                sisters drug habit?

Competition vs. Cooperation                      Do you believe that grades are
                                                                                                motivation to learning?

Freedom of Press vs. National Security              It is wise to hold weekly presidential
                                                                                                            press conferences or briefings?

Order vs. freedom of speech.                      Should we arrest all those who attend
                                                                                                protests for Black Lives Matter?

Rationality vs. spontaneity                          Should I watch FC Barcelona play
                                                                                                before placing a $100 bet that they

                                                                                                are going to win the UEFA

                                                                                                Champions league?                           

Value assumptions occur when the communicator demonstrates a relative preference for one value over another. For instance, an author may value privacy over security, and thus may argue against state surveillance. Value assumptions are what cause two perfectly intelligent people to look at the same information and arrive at completely different conclusions (for or against abortion rights; for or against gun control). As Browne and Keeley write:

What leads you to answer a prescriptive question differently from someone else is the relative intensity with which you hold specific values A value assumption is an implicit preference for one value over another in a particular context.

How do you identify value assumptions?

Typical value conflicts: Look for typical value conflicts, such as competition-cooperation, individual rights-welfare of the group, privacy-security, etc. An author is likely to make a value assumption if the issue involves value conflicts.
Consequences: In prescriptive issues, each position will lead to consequences. Note which consequences are provided as reasons for supporting the conclusion, and then think about what value assumptions would lead the communicator to select those reasons.
Reverse role play: Ask the question What do those people who would take a different position from a stated argument care about?
Lets look at a specific example to make it more concrete. In a recent op-ed (Links to an external site.)bin The New York Times, Harvard professor Dani Rodrick argues that Trumps trade policies prioritize the interests of businesses above those of average consumers and workers. Some examples of value assumptions that the author makes in the article:

Economic fairness and equality are more desirable than competition and wealth concentration
Government assistance is more desirable than individual responsibility
The national sovereignty of foreign countries is more important than the expectation that they will adapt to US trade policies

Descriptive Assumptions:  are beliefs about the way the world was, is, or will be or become.

The second kind of assumption, descriptive assumptions, reflect the communicators world view. Value assumptions help you understand how the communicator thinks the world should be; descriptive assumptions help you understand how the communicator thinks the world is.

As Browne and Keeley write:

A descriptive assumption is an unstated belief about how the world was, is, or will become.

Lets review a specific example provided by Browne and Keeley:

Conclusion: This particular car, the newest model, will get you where you want to go.
Reason: The past models of this car have functioned well on multiple occasions.
How do you go from the reason to the conclusion? There are two descriptive assumptions being made here.

Assumption 1: Since the past models of this car have functioned well on multiple occasions, the new model will function just as well.
Assumption 2: The way that you will be driving this particular car are the same as the ways in which past models of this car have functioned well.
If both of these descriptive assumptions are true, then the conclusion follows from the reason given. However, you could challenge these assumptions and disagree with the conclusion, unless better reasons are provided.

Here are some descriptive assumptions that commonly show up in arguments, courtesy of Browne and Kelley:

Personal choices: It is ones personal choices, rather than circumstances or luck, that determine the outcome of events.
Im typical: The speaker or writer is typical of the greater population. When someone makes this assumption, she relies heavily on her own personal experiences and tastes in her reasoning.
Justice: The world is just. People will do the right thing. That something should be true means that it will be true. [also known as theromantic fallacy]
Past is predictor of future: Since we have seen this happen before, it will happen again.
Im what matters. My world is the center of the universe. When someone makes this assumption, its difficult for them to prioritize others needs or see others perspectives.
Once you have identified the authors value or descriptive assumptions, you can disagree with them which may also lead you to disagree with the conclusion.

Browne and Keeley recommend asking these questions with respect to assumptions:

On what basis can you draw this conclusion from that reason? (Identify linkage assumptions)
Is there any basis for accepting that assumption?
If the answer for the second question is no, you can reject the assumption. If the answer is yes, then this assumption supports the conclusion.

Next, I want you to read carefully the following editorial regarding voting rights for former felons, those who have served their sentences, who are looking to have their voting right reinstituted.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/progress-on-restoring-felons-voting-rights-is-still-slow–but-at-least-theres-progress/2020/10/18/51f3adb8-0f1c-11eb-b1e8-16b59b92b36d_story.html (Links to an external site.)

Then, I want you to identify and write in sentence form four assumptions that the Editorial Board of the Washington Post used to constructing this opinion piece.

Finally, if you can, please identify if the assumption is a Values Assumption or a Descriptive Assumption.

Once you are done with posting this assignment on Canvas then you are done with the assignment this week. Have a wonderful weekend.  The weather is getting cooler and it is a welcome change.